Review+-+Absolutism

** Review Sheet – Absolutism 1600 - 1789 ** __Directions__: Answer the following questions here on the wiki (or don’t). I advise you to be able to answer all of these questions with more than a couple of sentences? Why YES! You are ultimately responsible for all of this information, but unfortunately there is very little time to go over all of these items. Cardinal Richelieu ** - **** (Anthony) ** He was a French clergyman, noble and statesman. He was consecrated as a bishop in 1608 and in 1616 he became a Secretary of State. Richelieu rose in both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a Cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIII's chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642; he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin. The Cardinal de Richelieu was often known by the title of the King's "Chief Minister" or "First Minister". As a result, he is considered to be the world's first Prime Minister. He sought to unite royal power and crush domestic factions. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong, centralized state. His chief foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty, and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years' War that engulfed Europe. Although he was a cardinal, he did not hesitate to make alliances with Protestant rulers in attempting to achieve his goals. Richelieu was also famous for his patronage of the arts; most notably, he founded the Académie Française, the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to <span style="background-color: transparent !important; border-image: none; border: currentColor !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; font-size-adjust: none !important; font-stretch: normal !important; font: 13px/19.5px arial,helvetica,sans-serif !important; height: auto !important; margin: 0px !important; min-height: 0px !important; min-width: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration: underline !important; vertical-align: baseline !important; width: auto !important;">. Richelieu is also known by the name "the Red Eminence." As an advocate for Samuel de Champlain and of the retention of New France, he founded the Compagnie des Cent-Associés and saw the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye return Quebec City to French rule under Champlain, after the settlement had been captured by the Kirkes in 1629. This in part allowed the colony to eventually develop into the heartland of Francophone culture in North America. He is also a leading character in The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas. Cardinal Mazarin ** - **** (Arellano) ** Jean Baptiste Colbert ** - **** (Baker) -** a French politician who served as the Minister of Finances of France from 1665 to 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. His relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister. He achieved a reputation for his work of improving the state of French manufacturing and bringing the economy back from the brink of bankruptcy. Historians note that, despite Colbert's efforts, France actually became increasingly impoverished because of the King's excessive spending on wars.[1] Colbert worked to create a favourable balance of trade and increase France's colonial holdings.[citation needed] Colbert's market reforms included the foundation of the Manufacture 'royale de glaces de miroirs' in 1665 to supplant the importation of Venetian glass (forbidden in 1672, as soon as the French glass manufacturing industry was on sound footing) and to encourage the technical expertise of Flemish cloth manufacturing in France. He also founded royal tapestry works at Gobelins and supported those at Beauvais. Colbert worked to develop the domestic economy by raising tariffs and by encouraging major public works projects. Colbert also worked to ensure that the French East India Company had access to foreign markets, so that they could always obtain coffee, cotton, dyewoods, fur, pepper, and sugar. In addition, Colbert founded the French merchant marine. Oliver Cromwell ** - **** (Barner) ** John Locke ** - **** (Bassett) ** Thomas Hobbes ** - **** (Bates) ** -Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher in the 1600's. He is best known today for his works in political philosophy. He is the author of the book Leviathan, published in 1651, which established the foundation for Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory. Social contract theories typically address the question of the origin of society and the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Leviathan was written in the midst of the English Civil War and a lot of the book demonstrates the necessity of a strong central authority to avoid war. Hobbes came up with the idea of the state of nature which is where he postulates what life would be like for the individual without government, and says this would lead to a giant war of everyone for themselves. He says the social contract is that each individual sacrifices some individual rights to a sovereign authority in exchange for protection. Ironically when Hobbes published Leviathan he became hated by both Anglican and French Catholics, and the royalists that had been exiled from revolutionary England. To stay alive he had to get the English government to protect where he fled in 1651. Hobbes was a physicist to begin with, but didn't succeed as well in that field as he did in philosophy. He was the mathematical instructor for Charles the prince of Wales in 1647. Glorious Revolution ** - **** (Benavides) ** English Civil War ** - **** (Boboy) ** The English Civil War (1642–1651) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians ("Roundheads")and Royalists ("Cavaliers") in the Kingdom of England over, principally, the manner of its government. The first (1642–46) and second(1648–49) wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third (1649–51) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651.The overall outcome of the war was threefold: the trial and execution of Charles I; the exile of his son, Charles II; and the replacement of English monarchy with, at first, the Commonwealth of England (1649–53) and then the Protectorate (1653–59) under Oliver Cromwell's personal rule. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent, although this concept was legally established only as part of the Glorious Revolution in 1688. Christopher Wren ** - **** (Boyer) ** Sir Christopher Wren (20 October 1632 – 25 February 1723) is one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history. He was accorded responsibility for rebuilding 52 churches in the City of London after the Great Fire in 1666, including his masterpiece, St. Paul's Cathedral, on Ludgate Hill, completed in 1710.
 * AP European History **
 * Identification **
 * ** an English military and political leader and later, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland **
 * ** became an independent Puritan in the 1630's **
 * ** worked his way up the political ladder and sided with the "Roundheads" in the English Civil War and was a principal commander in the New Model Army, which was responsible for the defeat of the royalist forces **
 * ** brought an end to the Irish Confederate Wars and also passed many penal laws against the Roman Catholics in England, Scotland, and Ireland **
 * ** 1688-1689 **
 * ** replaced the reigning, James II, with the joint monarchy of protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, William of Orange **
 * ** events of the revolution were bloodless, and settlement established the supremacy of parliament over the crown, setting Britain on the path towards constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy **

Zemsky Sobor ** - **** (Bratcher) ** Law Code of 1649 ** - **** (Brinlee) ** Versailles ** - **** (Brown) ** The earliest mention of the name of Versailles is in a document dated 1038, relating to the village of Versailles. In 1575, the seigneury of Versailles was bought by Albert de Gondi, a naturalized Florentine, who invited [|Louis XIII] on several hunting trips in the forests surrounding Versailles. Pleased with the location, Louis ordered the construction of a hunting lodge in 1624. Eight years later, Louis obtained the seigneury of Versailles from the Gondi family and began to make enlargements to the château. This structure would become the core of the new palace.[|[][|1][|]] Louis XIII's successor, [|Louis XIV], had it expanded into one of the largest palaces in the world.[|[][|2][|]] Following the [|Treaties of Nijmegen] in 1678, he began to gradually move the court to Versailles. The court was officially established there on 6 May 1682.[|[][|3][|]] After the disgrace of [|Nicolas Fouquet] in 1661, Louis confiscated Fouquet's estate and employed the talents of [|Le Vau], [|Le Nôtre], and Le Brun, who all had worked on Fouquet's grand château Vaux-le-Vicomte, for his building campaigns at Versailles and elsewhere. For Versailles, there were four distinct building campaigns.[|[][|4][|]]

The four building campaigns (1664–1710) [ [|edit] ]
View of the Palace from the garden The first building campaign (1664–1668) commenced with the //[|Plaisirs de l'Île enchantée]// (Pleasures of the Enchanted Island) of 1664, a [|fête] that was held between 7 and 13 May 1664. The campaign involved alterations in the château and gardens to accommodate the 600 guests invited to the party. (Nolhac, 1899, 1901; Marie, 1968; Verlet, 1985). The second building campaign (1669–1672) was inaugurated with the signing of the [|Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle], which ended the War of Devolution. During this campaign, the château began to assume some of the appearance that it has today. The most important modification of the château was Le Vau's envelope of Louis XIII's hunting lodge. (Nolhac, 1901; Marie, 1972; Verlet, 1985). Significant to the design and construction of the //grands appartements// is that the rooms of both apartments are of the same configuration and dimensions – a hitherto unprecedented feature in French palace design. Both the //grand appartement du roi// and the //grand appartement de la reine// formed a suite of seven [|enfilade] rooms. The decoration of the rooms, which was conducted under Le Brun's direction, depicted the "heroic actions of the king" and were represented in allegorical form by the actions of historical figures from the antique past ([|Alexander the Great], [|Augustus], [|Cyrus], etc.). (Berger, 1986; Félibien, 1674; Verlet, 1985). With the signing of the [|Treaty of Nijmegen] in 1678, which ended the [|Dutch War], the third building campaign at Versailles began (1678–1684). Under the direction of the architect, [|Jules Hardouin-Mansart], the Palace of Versailles acquired much of the look that it has today. In addition to the Hall of Mirrors, Hardouin-Mansart designed the north and south wings and the //Orangerie//. Le Brun was occupied not only with the [|interior decoration] of the new additions of the palace, but also collaborated with Le Nôtre's in landscaping the palace gardens (Berger, 1985; Thompson, 2006; Verlet, 1985). Soon after the defeat of the [|War of the League of Augsburg] (1688–1697), Louis XIV undertook his last building campaign at Versailles. The fourth building campaign (1699–1710) concentrated almost exclusively on construction of the royal chapel designed by Hardouin-Mansart and finished by [|Robert de Cotte]. There were also some modifications in the //[|appartement du roi]//, namely the construction of the //[|Salon de l'Œil de Bœuf]// and the [|King's Bedchamber]. With the completion of the chapel in 1710, virtually all construction at Versailles ceased; building would not be resumed at Versailles until some twenty one years later during the reign of [|Louis XV] (Nolhac, 1911; Marie, 1976, 1984; Verlet, 1985). **Plans of the evolution of Versailles** ||
 * [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/4_Versailles_IV_de_envelope_van_1674_met_de_vogelkooien.jpg/150px-4_Versailles_IV_de_envelope_van_1674_met_de_vogelkooien.jpg width="150" height="150" caption="4 Versailles IV de envelope van 1674 met de vogelkooien.jpg" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:4_Versailles_IV_de_envelope_van_1674_met_de_vogelkooien.jpg"]] || [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/7_Versailles_nog_zonder_spiegelzaal.jpg/191px-7_Versailles_nog_zonder_spiegelzaal.jpg width="191" height="150" caption="7 Versailles nog zonder spiegelzaal.jpg" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:7_Versailles_nog_zonder_spiegelzaal.jpg"]] ||
 * //The palace in 1668// || //The palace in 1674// || //The palace in 1680// ||

Louis XV – Louis XVI (1722–1788) [ [|edit] ]
During the reign of [|Louis XV], Versailles underwent transformation,designed by Louis Le Vau and his assistant Monsieur Paul Chatal, but not on the scale that had been seen during the reign of Louis XIV. The first project in 1722 was the completion of the [|Salon d'Hercule]. Significant among Louis XV's contributions to Versailles were the //petit appartement du roi//; the //appartements de Mesdames//, the //appartement du dauphin//, and the //appartement de la dauphine// on the ground floor; and the two private apartments of Louis XV – //petit appartement du roi au deuxième étage// (later transformed into the //appartement de [|Madame du Barry]//) and the //petit appartement du roi au troisième étage// – on the second and third floors of the palace. The crowning achievements of Louis XV's reign were the construction of the [|Opéra] and the [|Petit Trianon] (Verlet, 1985). Equally significant was the destruction of the //Escalier des Ambassadeurs// (Ambassadors' Stair), the only fitting approach to the State Apartments, which Louis XV undertook to make way for apartments for his daughters. The [|gardens] remained largely unchanged from the time of Louis XIV; the completion of the //Bassin de Neptune// between 1738 and 1741 was the only important legacy Louis XV made to the gardens (Marie 1984; Thompson, 2006; Verlet 1985). Towards the end of his reign, Louis XV, under the advice of [|Ange-Jacques Gabriel], began to remodel the courtyard facades of the palace. With the objective revetting the entrance of the palace with classical facades, Louis XV began a project that was continued during the reign of Louis XVI, but which did not see completion until the 20th century (Verlet, 1985). Gardens and palace of Versailles in 1746, by the abbot Delagrive Much of [|Louis XVI's] contributions to Versailles were largely dictated by the unfinished projects left to him by his grandfather. Shortly after his ascension, Louis XVI ordered a complete replanting of the [|gardens] with the intention of transforming the //jardins français// to an English-style garden, which had become popular during the late 18th century (Verlet, 1985). In the palace, the library and the //salon des jeux// in the //petit appartement du roi// and the decoration of the //petit appartement de la reine// for [|Marie-Antoinette] are among the finest examples of the [|style Louis XVI] (Verlet, 1945; 1985). Interregnum ** - **** (Cardoza) ** The Restoration ** - **** (Carroll) ** The Restoration was both a series of events in April–May 1660 and the period that followed it in British history. In 1660 the monarchy was restored the kingdoms of England, Ireland and Scotland in the person of Charles II. Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, promising that he will be a lawful king, as he had been since Charles I's execution, conflicting with Ireland and Scotland law, who had previously only informally been British. Charles II was crowned king in these two places with little resistance, and thus was the Restoration of the throne of England over the British Isles. The Divine Right of Kings ** - **** (Consolver) ** Jus Naturalis ** - **** (Coville) ** Lex Naturalis ** - **** (Dam) **- Natural Law or Law of nature. It is a system of law that is determined by nature, and so is universal. Classically, natural law refers to the use of reason to analyze human nature, both social and personal, and deduce binding rules of moral behavior from it. Natural law is often contrasted with the positive law of a given political community, society, or state. In legal theory, on the other hand, the interpretation of positive law requires some reference to natural law. On this understanding of natural law, natural law can be invoked to criticize judicial decisions about what the law says but not to criticize the best interpretation of the law itself. Some scholars use natural law synonymously with natural justice or natural right while others distinguish between natural law and natural right. Caravaggio ** - **** (Davis) ** Caravaggio was born as Michelangelo Merisi in Italy around 1571. He was orphaned at age 11 and apprenticed with a painter in Milan. He moved to Rome, where his work became popular for the tenebrism technique he used, which used shadow to emphasize lighter areas. His career, however, was short-lived. Caravaggio killed a man during a brawl and fled Rome. He died not long after, on July 18, 1610. A few of his most important paintings were "The Death of the Virgin" and "David with the Head of Goliath" Gianlorenzo Bernini ** - **** (Diver) ** Rembrandt van Rijn ** - **** (Do) ** > Peter Paul Rubens ** - **** (Edward) ** Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasized movement, color, and sensuality. He is well known for Counter Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. Rubens was a classically educated humanist scholar and diplomat who was knighted by both Philip IV, King of Spain, and Charles I King of England.
 * Period of discontinuity
 * Gap in between monarchs
 * Interregnum and regency or "the one who reigns" overlap
 * Can also be referred as time in between the election of a new parliament
 * Here in the US it has been applied to the time in between a new president and his or hers inauguration when the old president is still in office
 * One example of this would be in April 1204 and July 1261 in the Byzantine Empire during the 4th crusade.
 * Another example of this is following Louis X death and the birth of John I
 * Bernini was an artist, architect, and sculptor who lived in Italy. he is credited with the creation of the Baroque style of sculpture. He made sculptures that portrayed lots of emotion and sculpted the most intense parts of a story, to show the character in action. Bernini was a staunch Catholic and many of his sculptures were made in support of the Catholic Church. **
 * he was born in July 15, 1606 and died on October 2, 1669
 * he was a Dutch etcher and painter during the Dutch Golden Age
 * known for his natural work in paintings where everything flowed
 * most famous for his portraits, particularly the one of himself because he was sincere and without vanity
 * used classical iconography and was very biblical when drawing his works
 * taught many important Dutch artists as well for twenty years
 * works such as The Raising of the Cross, Joseph Telling His Dreams, and The Stoning of Saint Stephen (all biblical)

Frans Hals ** - **** (Elizondo) ** Jan Bruegel (the Younger) ** - **** (Elphick) ** After learning under his father, Jan the Younger went to Italy in 1624, traveling with his childhood friend Anthony van Dyck. When Jan the Elder died in a cholera epidemic, Jan the Younger took over his father's studio. He became leader of Antwerp's guild in 1630. His clients included the Austrian and French courts, and he may have visited France in the 1650s. Like his father, he created landscape backgrounds.
 * c. 1582 –1666
 * a Dutch Golden Age painter born in Belgium
 * Notable for his loose painterly brushwork, he helped introduce this lively style of painting into Dutch art. Hals was also instrumental in the evolution of 17th-century group portraiture.
 * Hals chose not to give a smooth finish to his painting, as most of his contemporaries did, but mimicked the vitality of his subject by using smears, lines, spots, large patches of color and hardly any details. His brushstrokes were clearly visible in his paintings
 * Hals is best known for his portraits; however he also painted large group portraits. He practiced realism with a radically free approach; His pictures illustrate the various strata of society.
 * Later in his life his brush strokes became looser, fine detail becoming less important than the overall impression. Where his earlier pieces radiated gaiety and liveliness, his later portraits emphasized the stature and dignity of the people portrayed. His restricted palette is particularly noticeable in his flesh tints, which from year to year became more grey, until finally the shadows were painted in almost absolute black.

While Jan the Younger painted many subjects, he is best known for landscapes which ranged from villages, to mythological scenes, and putting animals in landscapes. His paintings show the senses, the elements, the seasons, and abundance. Jan Bruegel (the Elder) ** - **** (Eubank) ** Johannes Vermeer** - **** (Evans) ** Anthony van Dyck ** - **** (Feagan) ** (22 March 1599 – 9 December 1641) – Nationality: Dutch – Famous portrait painter in England – Most famous for his portraits of Charles I of England – Influenced by Titian – Part of the Baroque movement Annibale Carracci ** - **** (Fisher) ** November 3, 1560 – July 15, 1609 Italian Baroque painter, he was a helpful force in the making of Baroque style. Together with his cousin Ludovico (1555–1619) and older brother Agostino (1557–1602) The Carracci rejected the artificiality of Mannerist painting, championing a return to nature coupled with the study of the great northern Italian painters of the Renaissance, especially Correggio, Titian, and Veronese. Annibale not only drew from nature, he created a new, broken brushwork to capture movement and the effects of light on form. His Two Children Teasing a Cat (ca. 1590; 1994.142) marks a new chapter in the history of genre painting. In Ludovico's early and still unresolved Lamentation (ca. 1582; 2000.68), the figure of Christ gives the picture a jarring immediacy and actuality. Later this kind of painting would be taken up over a decade later by Caravaggio. The success led to Annibale being invited to Rome working for the Farnese family (1595). In Rome, Annibale's painting was transformed through his encounter with classical antiquity and the art of Michelangelo and Raphael. Individual scenes of ancient mythology are surrounded by an elaborate illusionistic framework with feigned statues, in front of which sit muscular nude figures seemingly lit from the actual windows (view of the ceiling of the Farnese Gallery). The corners are opened to painted views of the sky. When unveiled in 1600, the ceiling was instantly acclaimed as the equal of any work in the past. In combining northern Italian naturalism with the idealism of Roman painting, Annibale created the basis of Baroque art. Ludovico Carracci ** - **** (Franco) ** (21 April 1555 – 13 November 1619) was an Italian, early-Baroque painter, etcher, and printmaker born in Bologna. His works are characterized by a strong mood invoked by broad gestures and flickering light that create spiritual emotion and are credited with reinvigorating Italian art, especially fresco art, which was subsumed with formalistic Mannerism. He died in Bologna in 1619 Agostino Carracci ** - **** (French) ** Nicolas Poussin ** - **** (Harper) ** Guido Reni ** - **(Hunt) An Italian painter during the High Baroque period. He was born on Nov. 4 1525 and he died 1642. His style of painting was a stern, but vibrantly colorful. His paintings were focused around biblical and mythological subjects. He worked in both Rome and Naples before returning to his birthland of Bologna.
 * Flemish Painter
 * c. 1568 - 1625
 * Painted floral still life's, and painted figure's into other artist's landscapes
 * Born in Brussels
 * Dutch Golden Age Painter
 * Middle 1600's
 * Painted mostly middle class people indoors
 * Known for how he used light to illuminate his paintings

//The Night Watch// //Conversion of St. Paul// //Calling of St. Matthew// //St. Theresa in Ecstasy// //Girl With an Earring// //Young Woman Playing a Viola// //The Rest on the Flight to Egypt// //King Charles I – Hunting// //St. George and the Dragon// //The Abduction of the Sabine Women// //Two Children Teasing a Cat// //Two Treatises on Civil Government// //Leviathan// //St. Jerome Writing// //The Astronomer//
 * Important Works **

1. Who were the important Absolute Monarchs in Europe?** (Rue) ** 2. What were the significant Constitutional Monarchies in Europe prior to 1789?** (Russell) ** I found a good link with lots of monarchies. :D ( http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/euru/hd_euru.htm ) 3. What is sovereignty?** (Schaefer) ** 4. What is Natural Law, and can you provide an example?** (Schrop) ** An ethical belief or system of beliefs supposed to be inherent in human nature and discoverable by reason rather than revelation. The Bill of Rights is an example of natural law. 5. What are natural rights?** (Siraphet) ** 6. What is the Social Contract?** (Sjostrom) ** ==== “social contract theory”(written by the 17 th Century English philosopher Thomas Hobbes), the method of justifying political principles or arrangements by appeal to the agreement that would be made among suitably situated rational, free, and equal persons. He is infamous for having used the social contract method to arrive at the astonishing conclusion that we ought to submit to the authority of an absolute—undivided and unlimited—sovereign power. ==== 7. How do Hobbes and Locke differ on their views of government, human nature, natural rights, and the social contract?** (Tellez) Hobbes political theory was that all should submit to the higher power because he thought that it was the best way to contain social order and stability in society. He thought that it was mans right to listen to the guy in charge because he was well in charge and that people shouldn't fight but get along. He saw women as equals and part of the state. Locke was the rebel and saw that if you were not happy with you're government then over throw it. You had the right of life, liberty, and the pursuit of PROPERTY!!! He saw that human nature was to get what you wanted and say what you wanted. If you have to fight for it then fight for it. ** 8. What is the Long Parliament? Why is does it last so long?** (Theisen) ** 9. What is the relationship between the Crown and Parliament after the death of Elizabeth I?** (Thomas) ** 10. How does the Reformation influence the development of absolute monarchy?** (Weiss) **
 * Review Questions **
 * Sovereignty is the quality of having an independent authority over a geographic area and can be found in a power to rule and make laws that rests on a political fact for which no pure legal definition can be provided**
 * Natural rights are certain rights that cannot by justified or dependent upon the laws, customs, or beliefs of any government or culture, making the 'laws' inalienable and universal. The ideology of natural laws came about during the Age of Enlightenment when //philosophes// such as John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Thomas Paine began to philosophize an idea of people being guaranteed given rights from birth and cannot be denied under any jurisdiction of any form of government. Such as John Locke he believed that a man's natural rights are "life, liberty, and estate (property)" and Hobbes' conception of natural rights extended from his conception of man in a "state of nature." **
 * The relationship between the Crown and Parliament after the death of Elizabeth I was not stable. After Elizabeth I, James I had a pretty good relationship with the Parliament at first, but James would soon have some quarrels with the Parliament. The main differences the Parliament and James had had to do with royal finances and royal favorites. The issue with the royal finances occurred because James I wanted to get money without the consent of the Parliament. James believed that his authority was given by God and that the Parliament was below him, and their laws and opinions were always subject to his overview and review. He also believed that he could overrule them whenever he wished. On the other hand, Parliament thought that the king should be a partner to the Parliament. they believed that the Parliament had it's own rights equal to the King's. These different views on power were also the cause for many other problems the Parliament and the Crown had in their relationship.**
 * This question has so much potential, so here I go. The Reformation gave a lot more power to the monarchies who adopted it. Let's think about it like this... Russia adopted another religion which believed in many of the same things that Catholicism does, but gave much more power to the people ( and especially to the monarchy) that religion was of course Orthodox Christianity. Now, to use a more relevant example, we look at France who adopted the Roman Catholic religion. France had to pay a certain payment to the Catholic Church based in Rome, in addition to giving them freedom from taxation. Even more, the French kings could not get a divorce without the permission of the Pope in Rome. In Germany and England However, many German Duchies and Principalities adopted Protestantism, either in the form of Anglican Christianity or in the form of Lutheran Christianity. In England, Kings and Queens could get divorces whenever they wanted to, didn't have to pay a thing to any central authority ( considering Protestantism didn't really have a central authority) and could change up the laws to make religion more favorable for them. In fact, Anglican was and still is the state religion of England, meaning that the Monarchy rules over the Church. Yet still, England isn't really an Absolute Monarchy, considering they have a parliament. Going deeper into this whole ordeal, we have to look at the fact that Europe had mostly been united under Catholicism, the Church was a very powerful entity which could spread its bidding around all of Europe. However, the Monarchies that kept Catholicism were still very strong. But Why? Well, the Kings were now able to solidify a deal with the Church, either allow us power and give us divine right, or be crushed in our country and we adopt the Protestant ideology. This worked out quite well in France, where an absolute rule was established until the 1780's when a weak economic system under Absolutism finally triggered revolution in the French Cities. In Spain, an Absolute Monarchy was already in place... the Spanish Inquisition was already underway and Castile and Aragon had finally ruled. All and all, the Reformation basically strengthened all Monarchies and weakened the Church. **

11. Who was Cardinal Richelieu, and what was his involvement in creating absolute rule in France? ** (Wieland) **
Armand Jean du Plessis was a French clergyman, noble and statesman. Consecrated as a bishop in 1608, he later entered politics, becoming a Secretary of State in 1616. Richelieu soon rose in both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a Cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIII's chief minister in 1624. The Cardinal de Richelieu was often known by the title of the King's "Chief Minister" or "First Minister". As a result, he is considered to be the world's first Prime Minister, in the modern sense of the term. **F**irst off, he suppressed the power of protestant nobles. Second, he promoted minor nobles, and even commoners to important posts. So they owed their position to the French Monarchy, and not to ancient feudal privileges. Also, he moved against the Huguenots and weakened the nobles power. By doing this, all power moved inwards to itself and created a centralized government.

12. Why was Cardinal Richelieu (and France) so opposed to the Hapsburg family? Richelieu in case you aren't familiar, is the king's, king louis, most principle minister. One of the primary goals of the two was to keep a check of power on the Spanish, aka the Habsburg. In a valley in Lombardy, a city called Valtillena, he supported the protestents there to suppres the habsburg power. Habsburg Spain also did the same when the French conflict with the Huguenots was used to extend its influence in northern Italy. It made the Huguenot rebels in order to keep the French army busy, meanwhile expanding its Italian regions. Richelieu, however, responded aggressively; after La Rochelle lost, he himself led the French army to northern Italy to hold Spain. Him and the habsburg have been sworn enemies for the entirety of Richelieu's career.
 * (Xia) **

13. How were the Austrian Hapsburgs different from the Spanish Hapsburgs? How were the two families related? (Yakubek) The Austrian Habsburgs were considered to be a major European power (at least in the 17th century) who controlled around 8 million subjects. In terms of land, they directly ruled a lot of the Holy Roman Empire- the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Bohemia- and also the Kingdom of Hungary. They were more religiously tolerant compared to the Spanish Habsburgs, who insisted that the Austrian Habsburgs be more strict with Protestants and Calvinists. The Spanish Habsburgs controlled Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, south Italy, the Phillipines, and most of the Americas. Both the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs were a part of the...um... Habsburg royal house... so... they're both... uh... Habsburgs... 14. Who was Cardinal Mazarin, and how did his policies represent a continuation of Richelieu’s? How did he differ from his predecessor?** (Anthony) ** MAZARIN, Jules (1602–61). A Cardinal and Prime Minister of France during the minority of Louis XIV. He was born July 14, 1602, at Piscina in the Abruzzi, Italy. He was educated at the Jesuit College in Rome. On returning to Rome Mazarin became a doctor of canon and civil law and entered the Pope's military service as a captain of infantry in the Colonna regiment. His talents, however, were more diplomatic than military, and after being employed on several political missions in Italy he accompanied the Papal Legate to the court of France (1628) and there and became known to Richelieu. This he did while still employed by the Pope as Vice Legate to Avignon (1632) and Nuncio to the French court, an office to which he was appointed in 1634. The Spaniards complained of his partiality for France, and the Pope was obliged to recall him. In 1639, however, he openly entered the service of Louis XIII, was naturalized a Frenchman, and in 1641, received a cardinal's hat, through the influence of Richelieu, who, when dying, recommended Mazarin to the King as the only person capable of carrying on his political system. The Queen mother, Anne of Austria, was at first hostile to him and then eventually warmed up to him.The result of the close alliance between the Queen and himself was that Mazarin ruled with almost as unlimited sway as Richelieu had done. The Parliament of Paris resisted the registration of edicts of taxation; but Mazarin caused the leaders of the opposition to be arrested and began the disturbances of the Fronde. Mazarin continued Richelieu's foreign policy, waging war vigorously against the Hapsburg power in Austria and Spain; his most important diplomatic acts were in connection with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 and that of the Pyrenees in 1659. The administration of justice in France under Mazarin became very corrupt, and the commerce and finances of the country underwent a great depression. As a financier, Mazarin was far inferior to Richelieu. He was greedy and enriched himself at the expense of the country. 15. What was the Edict of Fountainebleau?** (Arellano) ** 16. What was the //taille//?** (Baker) ** 17. France had royal officials called //intendants//? Who were they, and how did they strengthen the power of the French monarchy?** (Barner) ** 18. Why did Great Britain not become an absolute monarchy?** (Bassett) ** 19. What are the differences between the constitutional monarchy of Great Britain, and the absolute monarchies of the rest of Europe?** (Bates) ** -Great Britain had a constitutional monarchy meaning that the monarchs were limited by a constitution, and other documents created by Parliament. To name one, the Magna Carta, which limited the power of the King, and laid the foundation for the creation of Parliament. Parliament was the basis of what was different from Great Britain's government and the Absolute governments.

The Absolute governments of the rest of Europe only had one person who had power, and they had all the power. Parliament made it so the king wasn't the only one with power, and the ability to make laws. Where the monarchs of the absolute monarchies were as King Louis XIV put it, "the State" they were the only ones with the power, and could basically do what they wanted, at least until they were overthrown and beheaded.

Both kinds of monarchies usually led to those below the monarchs to rebel. In the absolute monarchies it was the people themselves who rebelled, but in Great Britain it was the King who rebelled not the people. The English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution were results of Parliament's power caps on the King.

Parliament progressively limited the power of the monarch until they became the figure heads they are today with just about no power at all. The only limits that absolute monarchs had was physical limitations when they wanted something done. 20. What is the Baroque Period of art in Europe? How does it differ from the Renaissance Period?** (Benavides) ** **differences between baroque and renaissance** 21. In terms of artistic style – what is Mannerism?** (Boboy) ** -Mannerism is a period of European art that emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520. It lasted until about 1580 in Italy, when the Baroque style began to replace it, but Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century.Stylistically, Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo. While High Renaissance explored harmonious ideals, Mannerism wanted to go a step further.Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. Mannerism favours compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance painting.Artistic style of the high Renaissance, characteristics were by heightened scale, exaggerated drama, and detail for emotional effect, depicted emotional and distorted subjects, ignored perspective at times, was a reaction to the idealism of the Renaissance. 22. How does the Roman Catholic Church impact the development of the Baroque Period?** (Boyer) ** The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church, which had decided at the time of the Council of Trent, in response to the Protestant Reformation, that the arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement.
 * Baroque period **
 * **characterized by energy, drama, and movement.**
 * **the church of Rome need art that spoke to its resurgent power even as the conflict between Protestant and Catholics continued**
 * **a new realism- with a special sensitivity light also pervades the art of this period across europe and can be seen especially in the work of Caravaggio, Velazquez, Ruysadael and Vermeer.**
 * **in the protestant dutch republic, artist painted in expanded range subjects like still-lifes, landscapes, and genre paintings for the middle class**
 * **Baroque**
 * **emotional**
 * **ornate**
 * **dynamic**
 * **asymmetric**
 * Renaissance
 * order
 * rationalism
 * nature
 * symmetry

23. Who were the significant ruling families in Europe from 1450 to 1789? Where did they govern and when?** (Bratcher) ** 24. Why did Louis the XIV build the Palace at Versailles?** (Brinlee) ** 25. The Palace of Versailles is an example of what kind of architecture?** (Brown) ** The //Palace of Versailles// was executed in the French Baroque //style// 26. Following the Time of Troubles in Russia, what family comes to the throne?** (Cardoza) ** The Romanov's became the ruling family after the Time of Troubles in Russia (1598 - 1613) and they rules from 1613 until the Russian Revolution in 1917. The Time of Troubles ended when an advisory assembly convened by the tsar elected Michael Romano, as the new tsar. In the first part of the Romanovs reign, they followed the rules and customs of after the a ruler dying, the crown goes to the eldest son or other close male relative. Alexis succeeding this father, and Fyodor III succeeding Alexis but after he Fyodor III died, Ivan (his brother) and Peter (his half-brother) agreed to co-rule Russia assuming the throne as co-tsar in 1682. When Peter became sole ruler in 1696, he came up of a law of succession that gave the tsar the power to choose who succeeded him after his death. Peter wanted to take advantage of this new rule so after his death he left the throne to his wife, Catherine I, who was Romanov only by marriage. In 1727 when she died the throne was given to Peter's grandson, Peter II. On March 1917, Nicholas III left the throne to give it to his bother Michael but he, Michael, didn't take the crown so all of Nicholas' family was executed July 1918.
 * If you want to read more click here.
 * 27. What is the relationship between the nobility and the peasants in Russia? **(Carroll) **The relationship between peasants and nobles in Russia was mostly based on mistrust and suspicion.Unlike France where the peasants respected and fought for the nobles the peasants in Russia wanted to grab the lands of the nobles. The peasants were drawn by hunger for land because though serfdom was abolished in 1861, the conditions of the peasants were miserable. Small holdings, heavy redemption dues, lack of capital and outdated modes of farming added to their misery. The peasant's anger found vent in refusal to pay rent and violence. Sometimes the peasants even murdered their own landlords. OK what about their economic relationship? What about their political relationship? Be thorough... **
 * 28. How does the treatment of peasants in Eastern Europe differ from (or compare to) the treatment of peasants in Western Europe?** (Consolver)
 * 29. What is the significance of the Law Code of 1649?** (Coville) **The Sobornoye Ulozheniye (Law Code of 1649) was a legal code created in 1649 by the Zemsky Sobor under Alexis of Russia as a replacement for the Sudebnik of 1550 introduced by Ivan IV of Russia. The code consolidated Russia's slaves and free peasants into a new serf class and pronounced class hereditary as unchangeable.The new code prohibited travel between towns without an internal passport and Russian nobility had to agree to serve in the army, but were granted the exclusive privilege of owning serfs.**


 * 30. Why did Peter the Great of Russia institute a program of westernization?** (Craver)
 * Peter the Great wanted to westernize Russia after seeing the large success of great countries in western Europe such as England, Sweden, Holland, and France. Peter wanted to turn Russia into a European power, and originally embarked on an 18 month journey with a Russian delegation known as The Grand Embassy. Although he was unsuccessful in the primary objective of his trip, which was to form an alliance with European powers against the Ottomans, Peter was exposed to much of western Europe's science, technology, and culture. He traveled through places such as France, England, Holland, and the Germanic states, stopping at cities such as London, Oxford, Amsterdam, Greenwich, Vienna, Zaandam, and Paris. While traveling through Europe, Peter personally tried at many of the trades he had seen, such as carpentry and the study of astronomy. Arguably his greatest pleasure though was shipbuilding, and spent four months in Holland learning everything he could from the Dutch East India Trade Company. Later, Peter's trip was cut short when he had to return home to deal with the rebellion of the Streltsy. When Peter returned to Russia however, he took with him a large group of people including skilled scientists and tradesmen to help build Russia into a greater European power and to help modernize the country. **


 * 31. Peter the Great undertakes a program of westernization in Russia. What were the changes that Peter instituted and how did they impact Russia?** (Dam) **He spent time traveling around Europe, and observed what the others were doing differently. He put a fine on people who kept beards so they had to shave it off and he made people where western clothing and had western like parties. A lot of these changed the Russian identity and were big changes to who the Russians were. But these series of reforms designed to westernize the Russian military, economy, religious institutions, bureaucracy, and political and social structures. These reforms caused Russia to develop into a major European power, with the strength, the clout, and the will to intervene in international affairs involving the traditional powers of Western Europe. The reforms that Peter brought about were designed not only to strengthen Russia as a nation but also to strengthen his rule over that nation. He sought practical Western techniques and skills, rather than theory and philosophy, that could be applied directly to improve Russia's political system, economy, and military forces. Also Peter improved Russia's domestic and foreign trade with the West, using mercantilist theories of extensive state control over goods to be shipped abroad. He even in fact had the size of the Russian military was increased, training was provided by Western officers brought to Russia for that purpose, and the quality of Russian weapons was improved. A new policy of raising military forces through an expanded conscription system provided the sizable forces Peter needed for his campaigns. He also established the first Russian navy. He also put the Church under government control. Peter's policies had the broad effect of creating a larger urban population, which was somewhat better educated than previously. But as mentioned before changes in the traditional Russian way of life provoked discontent and resistance. A serious serf rebellion broke out but was crushed by Peter's military forces. **


 * 32. How did Russia’s intrusion in European politics affect the balance of power in Europe?** (Davis)
 * The aptly-named balance of power in Europe was a system that aimed to maintain international order and peace by following any increase in strength of one nation-state with an increase in strength of his geographic or political enemy. By upholding this precarious system, the argument continued, no country would be willing to embark on a course of military expansion for fear of reprisal by an equally powerful force. With the creation of Germany in 1871, the old balance of power involving France, a rump Brandenburg-Prussia, Austria-Hungary, and Russia was replaced by a new system. Under the leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Germany forged ahead in 1873 by joining the two most conservative powers in Europe--Austria-Hungary and Russia-to form the Three Emperors' League. The three empires pledged to consult one another on mutual interests in Europe and to remain neutral when any one member state took military action against a non- member, particularly France or the Balkan nations. The Russians caused the Europeans to step back a little and look at the Russians power which frightened them. **

Russia's relationship was primarily a hostile one as it began to rise into a great power and began exhibiting expansionist tendencies. Russia tried to dominate Eastern Europe, and this eventually culminated in the Partition of Poland between Russia, Austria, and Prussia in the 1790's. The Russians also wanted desperately to have a port on the Baltic Sea, leading them into conflict with Sweden. One notable example of this conflict was the Great Northern War between Russia and Sweden under Peter the Great and Charles XII, respectively, as well as several other European powers (Great Northern War). Eventually, Peter succeeded and built a city, St. Petersburg, on the Baltic Coast. Russia also wanted a warm water port, leading them into conflict with the Ottomans.
 * 33. Describe Russia’s relationship with the rest of Eastern Europe and Scandinavia.** (Diver)
 * 34. How does Peter the Great’s reign in Russia compare with Louis XIV’s in France?** (Do)
 * Both rulers had military reforms to ensure the protection of their countries and to increase territorial expansion for the prestige of their nations. They also implemented new taxes and strong domestic policies, however Peter abolished land and household taxes, replacing them with a poll tax. Meanwhile Louis had custom duty taxes, salt taxes, and land taxes. Both rulers were patrons of the arts, hoping to extend culture to their nations. However, one big difference was that while Peter the Great was Eastern Orthodox, Louis XIV was a Catholic. Louis issued the Edict of Fontainebleau, revoking the Edict of Nantes. He persecuted Protestants and sent Jesuit missions to China, but Peter the Great allowed limited religious freedom with the belief that religious unity was not needed for a nation to thrive in union. Both rulers wanted to lessen the power of the nobility, with Louis building the palace at Versailles to keep the nobles distracted while Peter merely killed people he found disloyal. Both nations strengthened their authoritarian ways and wanted centralized states for their countries, both being absolute rulers. Both rulers wanted to improve their economy by sea with Louis starting a merchant marine to move his goods and Peter building St. Petersburg by the Baltic Sea where trade would be made much easier to access. Both had Western policies economically and culturally, with Peter copying the West's ways, even taxing people on not dressing in an appropriate style brought on by the West. However, Peter and Europe were still considered backwards compared to West Europe and Italy. **
 * 35. Who were the Cossacks, and what role do they play in Russian history during this time period?** (Edward)
 * In the 18th century the government turned the Cossacks into a special social estate, which was to serve the Russian Empire. Their main responsibilities were to guard the country’s borders. In order to keep the Cossacks loyal to the Tsar, the government gave them special privileges and vast social autonomy, which they valued. **
 * At the same time the Cossacks, remaining true to their free spirits, mostly respected the Tsar and the Patriarch, but hated state bureaucracy and when they felt the Tsar was unjust they didn’t hesitate to start rebellions. However, especially during the Romanov Dynasty, Cossacks were the most vigorous defenders of Russia. This continued up until the October Revolution of 1917. **


 * 36. What is the relationship of the Orthodox Church to the nobility in Russia?** (Elizondo)
 * 37. How is the interaction between the Church and Monarchy similar and different in Eastern and Western Europe?** (Elphick)
 * 38. Who are the significant architects of the time period? What are their significant contributions to building and construction in Europe?** (Eubank)
 * Gianlorenzo Bernini
 * Palazzo Barberini, St. Peter's Basilica, Piazza San Pietro
 * Francesco Borromini
 * San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Oratorio dei Fillipini, Sant' Ivo alla Sapienza
 * Pietro Da Cortano
 * Santa Maria della Pace, Villa Pigneto, Santi Luca e Martina
 * Carlo Maderno
 * Santa Susanna
 * Giovanni Trevano
 * Saints Peter and Paul Church
 * 39. What were the significant European conflicts that occurred between 1600 and 1789? How many of them qualified as World Wars?** (Evans) ** Well the major ones were, in order of occurrence: the Thirty Years War, The Polish Muscovite War, The Dutch-Portuguese War, The Cretan War, The Second Northern War, The Great Turkish War, The nine years war, The Great Northern War, War of Spanish Succession, War of Austrian Succession, The Seven Years War, and The American Revolution. The only ones i don't think y'all will know the participants of are The Cretan War(Ottomans vs Papal States), Nine Years(Pretty much all of Euro vs France). I can't find a source that tells me which of these are world wars but my guesses are The Thirty Years War, The Great Northern War, The Great Turkish War, both wars of succession and The Second Northern War. **
 * 40. What were the causes of the Thirty Years War?** (Feagan)

The war happened because of the religious disputes between the Catho­lics and the Protestants. Not even the Peace of Augsburg, which brought the first religious war in Germany to a close could help solve the problem. It granted right to the secular princes to settle the religion within their own territories which resulted in tyranny by these princes and they denied the people freedom of conscience. The Peace of Augsburg also didn't mention Calvinists, who were another major faith in the war. As a result of the Catholic Counter Reformation the Protestants lost their early energy. On the other hand, the Catholics strengthened their position in Southern Germany. The Duke Maximilian I and Emperor Ferdinand II (a Hapsburg) also gave their full support to the Catholicism. No wonder in 1608 when several Protestant states formed the Evangelical Union, Maximilian organized the Catholic League. As a result Germany came to be sharply divided into two hostile camps. The personal ambitions of Ferdinand also greatly contributed to the war. Ferdinand wanted to create a united and a subservient empire to strengthen his own position in Europe. This was greatly resented by the princes who wanted Germany to remain divided and weak so that their position was not undermined. Even the Catholic princes who supported Ferdinand against the Protestants were not in favour of further strength­ening the imperial power. The Pope also did not approve of a strong emperor who could curtail freedom of Church in Germany. The immediate cause which led to the Thirty Year's War was the revolt of the Protestants of Bohemians who were quite unhappy with Ferdinand II on account of his anti-Protestant policy. The trouble started when Ferdinand II ordered destruction of Protestant Church at Prague. The protestant people immediately rose in revolt, tossed the royal officers out of the castle windows and offered the crown to Frederick. Ferdinand II treated the acceptance of the crown by Frederick as a direct challenge and thus the Thirty Years' War commenced in 1618.

__Bohemia & the Palatinate__ __Danish Intervention__ __Swedish Intervention__ __French Intervention__ Restoration literature includes both Paradise Lost and the Earl of Rochester's Sodom, the high spirited sexual comedy of The Country Wife and the moral wisdom of Pilgrim's Progress. It saw Locke's Two Treatises on Government, the founding of the Royal Society, the experiments and the holy meditations of Robert Boyle, the hysterical attacks on theatres from Jeremy Collier, the pioneering of literary criticism from Dryden, and the first newspapers. The official break in literary culture caused by censorship and radically moralist standards under Cromwell's Puritan regime created a gap in literary tradition, allowing a seemingly fresh start for all forms of literature after the Restoration. During the Interregnum, the royalist forces attached to the court of Charles I went into exile with the twenty-year-old Charles II. The nobility who travelled with Charles II were therefore lodged for over a decade in the midst of the continent's literary scene. Charles spent his time attending plays in France, and he developed a taste for Spanish plays. Those nobles living in Holland began to learn about mercantile exchange as well as the tolerant, rationalist prose debates that circulated in that officially tolerant nation.
 * 41. What were the four different phases of the Thirty Years War, and how are they different?** (Fisher)
 * Beginning of the 17th century, the Holy Roman Empire controlled most of Central Europe. After the Reformation, rulers within certain states within the empire had the right to choose a denomination: Protestant or Catholic. This only enhanced the religious tensions within the Holy Roman Empire. In 1618, the mostly Protestant nobility revolted in the province of Bohemia. The Protestants feared they would lose their religious freedom when Ferdinand II became king of Bohemia. They feared that he would try to catholic up the place. This revolt spread throughout the empire, causing conflicts between Protestants and Catholics. Ferdinand II asked King Philip IV of Spain for assistance in dealing with the revolt. The Bohemians asked Fredrick V, Elector of the Palatinate (Protestant) for aid, and that if he helped them he’d be made king of Bohemia. The Protestant Union sent troops to Bohemia to aid the Protestants (duh). The Catholic League then sent troops and this resulted in the Battle of White Mountain. Spanish forces invaded and conquered Palatinate. Frederick V was driven into exile in the Netherlands. The Spanish then attacked the Netherlands. In Germany, General Tilly of the Catholic League was sacking of German cities.**
 * The success of the Catholic forces caused the Danish to intervene in the war. King Christian IV of Denmark (Protestant) sent forces into Northern Germany to defend the Protestants. Christian IV feared that the Catholics had the power to invade Protestant Denmark. The Catholics destroyed the Danish army, and occupied most of Northern Germany. In 1629, Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II issued a proclamation that prohibited Protestantism (being protestant). It restored all of the Catholic Church’s property taken in the last 75 years. The defeat of the Danish and German Protestant forces led to the next phase of the Thirty Years' War.**
 * Another leader of a Protestant nation feared the expansion of Catholic influence. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden (Lutheran) and felt compelled to aid his fellow Lutherans in Germany. He turned the tide of the war in the Protestants' favor. He ruled most of the territories lost to the Catholics. During the third phase, the worst massacre of the war haappened. The city of Magdeburg was besieged by Catholic forces, and after they stormed the city, all people were executed and the city was left to burn. On September 17, 1631, Swedish and Protestant German forces defeated the Catholic forces in the Battle of Breitenfeld. A year later, during the Battle of Lutzen, Gustavus Adolphus was killed, although the Swedish forces were victorious. The Swedish forces were finally defeated at the Battle of Nordlingen. The defeat of the Swedes at Nordlingen resulted in Bavaria remaining Catholic. After the defeat of the Swedes, and the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the Protestants signed the Peace of Prague. This treaty gave Protestants some of their land back, but gave the Holy Roman Empire far more power. The French began to become weary of the growing Imperial power.**
 * France, although a Catholic nation, joined the Protestant forces in fear of the growing power of the Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire was ruled by the Hapsburgs (the king of Spain was a one). The sovereignty of France was jeopardized due to its position between Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. In 1643, the French defeated the Spanish in the Netherlands at the Battle of Rocroi. The defeat of the Imperials at Rocroi leads both sides into negations which ended the war.**
 * 42. What were the literary accomplishments that were created during this time?** (Franco)

John Milton is one of the greatest English poets, wrote at this time of religious flux and political upheaval. Milton best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost (1671). Among other important poems are: L'Allegro,1631; Il Penseroso 1634; Comus (a masque), 1638;Lycidas; Paradise Regained, 1671; Samson Agonistes, 1671. Milton's poetry and prose reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, and the urgent issues and political turbulence of his day. Writing in English, Latin, and Italian, he achieved international renown within his lifetime, and his celebrated Areopagitica, written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship, is among history's most influential and impassioned defenses of free speech and freedom of the press. William Hayley's 1796 biography called him the "greatest English author", and he remains generally regarded "as one of the preeminent writers in the English language" The largest and most important poetic form of the era was satire. In general, publication of satire was done anonymously. There were great dangers in being associated with a satire. On the one hand, defamation law was a wide net, and it was difficult for a satirist to avoid prosecution if he were proven to have written a piece that seemed to criticize a noble. On the other hand, wealthy individuals would respond to satire as often as not by having the suspected poet physically attacked by ruffians. John Dryden was set upon for being merely suspected of having written theSatire on Mankind. A consequence of this anonymity is that a great many poems, some of them of merit, are unpublished and largely unknown.

Gustav Vasa fought in the Swedish War of Liberation and successfully removed the Danish-Norwegian king Christian II from his place as regent of the Kalmar Union in Sweden. In June of 1523 Vasa was elected to be King of Sweden in the town of Stragnas, and by September Swedish Finland was also controlled by his supporters. On September 1, 1524 Sweden finally seceded from the Kalmar Union. Gustav Vasa had restrained the power of the church with the Protestant Reformation. Vasa did things such as persuade the Riksdag of Vasteras to confiscate church lands, which was 21% of farmland, and he took Lutheran reformers under his protection and appointed his own men as bishops. He also suppressed aristocratic opposition to his efforts of centralization. Tax reforms that were put in place in 1538 and 1558 were very beneficial to Sweden. They took complex taxes on independent farmers and simplified and standardized them throughout the district, which meant that taxes per farm were adjusted to reflect their ability to pay them. That made taxes much more fair, and much more beneficial. In 1535, there was a war with Luebeck which resulted in the riddance of the Hanseatic traders. With Sweden's own businessmen in charge, the economic strength grew very rapidly. Sweden then built the first modern army in Europe, that was supported by a good tax system and government bureaucracy. Sweden was doing fairly well at this time, and soon, under rule of King Gustavus Adolphus would lead Sweden in becoming a great power. During the Thirty Years War he led Sweden to military supremacy. Sweden managed to conquer about half of the member states of the Holy Roman Empire. The Swedish-controlled German states got severely hurt during this war and eventually several denied Swedish power, until only a couple remained with Sweden. Once France joined Sweden though, things would get better again for them. France had a big part in Sweden being able to maintain its empire. The Battle of Poltava is what caused Sweden's position as a Great Power to lessen. The rise of the Ottomans correlates with the decline of the Byzantine Empire, which generated the shift in power from a singular Christian European society to an Islamic influence. The beginning of this period was characterized by the Byzantine-Ottoman wars which lasted for a century and a half. During this period, the Ottoman Empire gained control of both Anatolia and the Balkans.Immediately after the establishment of the Anatolian beyliks, some Turkic principalities united with the Ottomans against the Byzantine Empire. The rise period witnessed Sultanate of Rûm's defeat against the Mongols in the 14th century and was followed by the Growth of the Ottoman Empire — a period referred as Pax Ottomana, the economic and social stability attained in the conquered provinces of the Ottoman Empire, by some historians.
 * 43. How did the Peace of Westphalia affect the Holy Roman Empire?** (French)
 * 44. Who were the Ho ho ho Hohenzollerns? How did they transform the German states?** (Harper)
 * 45. Did absolute monarchy develop in the same manner in Scandinavia as it did in the rest of Europe?** (Hunt)
 * 46. What propelled Sweden to a position of power in European politics, and what brought about its downfall?** (Jenkins)
 * 47. The odd man out in European politics seems to be the Ottomans. What events occur that allow the Turks to become such a force in SE Europe?** (Jones)


 * 48. Turkish absolutism differs in a number of ways from it’s European counterpart – how?** (Keithley)
 * 49. How does the rise of Ottoman power impact the Austrians and the Russians? How does it impact Christianity?** (Killough)

There was the Austro-Turkish war in 1787-91. The Austrian army lost thousands of soldiers due to disease but in the end won and gained the town of Orsova and two small Croatian places. At the same time of the Austro-Turkish war, the Russo-Turkish war occurred. The Russians ended up winning and the Treaty of Jassy was signed recognizing Russia's 1783 annexation of the Crimean Khanate and transferred Yedisan to Russia making the Dniester the Russo-Turkish frontier in Europe. The Ottomans first drove the Byzantines, who were Christian, from Anatolia

**50. How do the Dutch achieve independence from Spain?** (King) **
===**Dutch War of Independence (1568–1648), began as a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces against Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands. ****After the initial stages, Philip II deployed his armies and regained control over most of the rebelling provinces. However, under the leadership of the exiled William of Orange, the northern provinces continued their resistance and managed to oust the Habsburg armies and, in 1581, established the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. The war continued in other areas, although the heartland of the republic was no longer threatened. The war ended in 1648 with the Peace of Münster, when the Dutch Republic was recognised as an independent country. **===