Review+-+The+Enlightenment

** Review Sheet – Enlightenment ** __Directions__: Answer the following questions here on the wiki (or don’t). I advise you to be able to answer all of these questions with more than a couple of sentences? Why YES! You are ultimately responsible for all of this information, but unfortunately there is very little time to go over all of these items. Nicolas Copernicus** - (Jenkins) ** Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 and he died on May 24, 1543. He was a renowned Renaissance mathematician and astronomer. He is known for his heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun in its rightful place, the center. He wrote a book called //De revolutionibus orium coelestium,// and it was published right before he died. The publication of that book is considered to be a major event in the history of science. Afterwards, the Copernican Revolution began and it contributed greatly to the scientific revolution. John Locke** - (Jones) ** John Locke was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and known as the Father of Classical Liberalism. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.
 * AP European History **
 * Identification **

Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau, and Kant. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to Cartesian philosophy based on pre-existing concepts, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception.

Montesquieu** - (Keithley) **


 * *French philosopher born in 1689, died in 1755 **
 * *outlined the concept of the division of state powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches **
 * *emphasized, publicized, and made popular the word //despotism// in the legal lexicon **
 * -Despotism-- (noun) A form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power **
 * ~individual power not necessary (such as with monarchies), but possible for group power to be used **
 * (oligarchies) **
 * *fundamental thought that historical events had little to do with individual acts, but more so with major movements and principle themes **
 * *one of the first people to classify humans based upon comparing and contrasting political forms in societies--> anthropology~! **
 * *came up with the concept of the three divisions among the French people **
 * ~the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the commons **
 * *later devised the Three Estates **
 * ~the clergy, aristocracy, and pesantry **
 * *outlined concepts of monarchy, republic, and despotisms (see above for explanation) **

Jean Jacques Rousseau** - **** (Killough) **

Lived from June 28, 1712- July 2, 1778. He was a writer, composer and philosopher. His most important writing was **Emile,** a treatise on the nature of education and the nature of man. It was banned from Paris during the French Revolution and was publicly burned in 1762. He wrote **Julie,** it was a novel but shows some philosophical theory; the theme of it is valuing the ethics of authenticity over rational moral principles. He wrote autobiographies like **Confessions**, covering the first 53 years of his life and **Reveries of a Solitary Walk,** describing the stuff he saw while in Paris. Finally, he wrote **Discourse on Inequality** about the origin of inequality among people and if it is authorized by natural law. He was also a composer and wrote seven operas and several other types of music.



Adam Smith** - (King) ** Denis Diderot** - (Knox) ** ====Denis Diderot was the most prominent of the French Encyclopedists. He was educated by the Jesuits, He moved to Paris, and gradually, he became recognized as one of the most powerful writers of the day. His first independent work was the Essai sur le merite et la vertu (17450.His Pensees philosophiques in which he attacked both athesim and the received Christianity, was burned by order of the Parliament of Paris. In the circle of the leaders of the Enlightenment, he became known for his Lettre sur les aveugles (London, 1749), which supported Locke’s theory of knowledge. ==== Marie Jean de Condorcet** - (Kossia) ** William Harvey** - (Laughlin) ** William Harvey was born on April 1, 1578 and died June 3 1657. He was an English physician and was the first to describe completely the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the brain and body by the heart. Though earlier writers provided persecutors of that theory. After his death, The William Harvey Hospital was built in the town of Ashford. This is quite a ways away from his birthplace of Folkestone. Isaac Newton** - (Lee, J.) **
 * Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, marquis de Condorcet** ( French: [maʁi ʒɑ̃n‿ɑ̃twan nikola də kaʁita kɔ̃dɔʁˈse] ; 17 September 1743 – 28 March 1794), known as **Nicolas de Condorcet**, was a French philosopher, mathematician, and early political scientist whose //Condorcet method// in voting tally selects the candidate who would beat each of the other candidates in a run-off election. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he advocated a liberal economy, free and equal public education, constitutionalism, and equal rights for women and people of all races. His ideas and writings were said to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment and rationalism, and remain influential to this day. He died a mysterious death in prison after a period of flight from French Revolutionary authorities

Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 - 20 March 1727) was an English physicist and mathematician. Regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time, Newton laid the foundation for classical mechanics with his book // 'Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica'. // Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that he is so well known for today. In addition to this work, Newton also invented the first reflecting telescope, developed a theory of color based on the dispersive prism, and made several important contributions in mathematics.

Benedict de Spinoza** - (Lee, K.) **

=
Baruch Spinoza (1632 - 1677) — later Benedict de Spinoza — was a Dutch philosopher. The breadth and importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until years after his death. By laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism including modern conceptions of the self and, arguably, the universe, he came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy. His magnum opus, the posthumous Ethics, in which he opposed Descartes's mind–body dualism, has earned him recognition as one of Western philosophy's most important thinkers. In the Ethics, "Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece, and one in which the refined conceptions of medieval philosophy are finally turned against themselves and destroyed entirely." Philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said of all contemporary philosophers, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all."======

=
Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam. He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine. The Jewish religious authorities issued a ostracized him, effectively excluding him from Jewish society at age 23. His books were also later put on the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books.====== Sir Francis Bacon** - (Linton) Sir Francis Bacon was an english philosopher and author. He served as an Attorney general and Lord Chancellor of England. After his death he remained influential through his works especially through his as a practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. His demand for planned procedure of investigating all things natural is still around today.** Cesareh Beccaria** - (Looney) ** Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) ** - (Macneill) ** David Hume** - (Martinez) **
 * Italian philosopher and politician
 * created treatise on crimes and punishment
 * crimes and punishment- written in 1764 it condemned torture and the death penalty and was in the field of penology (the philosophy of criminal punishments)
 * created the classical school of criminology
 * promoted criminal justice
 * Famous English author, historian, and member of British Parliament.
 * “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” (published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788) is considered to be his most notable work.
 * Due to his criticism of Christianity because of its role in the fall of the Roman Empire, he was rumored to be an atheist, although this is untrue as he actually identified as Roman Catholic. However, “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” was banned in a few countries because of this.
 * David Hume led the Scottish Enlightenment between 1740 and 1790. He** **was a Scottish philosopher, historian and economist. Hume argued that all knowledge results from our experiences and is not received form God. This led to the now days scientific method which believes in that can be observed rather then religion or faith. He was the first philosopher to ever remove God from the equation and only believe in science.**

Jean le Rond d’Alembert ** - (Matafadi) ** Jean was born November 16, 1717 in France. He was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. Until 1759, Jean was also a co-editor with Denis Diderot of the Encyclopedie. In 1741, after several failed attempts, d'Alembert was elected into the Academie des Sciences, then later elected to the Berlin Academy in 1746 and Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1743 he published his famous work, Traite de dynamique, where he developed his own laws of motion. Died of Urinary bladder illness on October 29, 1783. Andreas Vesalius** - (McCutchan) ** Born on December 31st 1514 in present-day Belgium. He was a physician, anatomist and author of "De humani corporis fabrica" which translates to "On the Fabric of the Human Body". It is believed to be one of the most important books to cover human anatomy, especially from that time period. In his book, he states his belief of the human framework consisting of the skeletal system, he shows remarkable illustrations of the muscular system known as "the muscle men", and he disproved Galen's theory of a "porous interventricular system" by discovering the mitral valve that explains the blood flow. He later became professor at the University of Pauda and then Imperial physician to Charles V. He died on October 15th 1564 at the age of 49 in modern-day Greece due to shipwreck. Galileo Galilei** - (Measom) ** Bernard de Fontenelle ** - (Mendez)- Bernard de Fontenelle was born Febuary 11th 1657. A french author who started writing as early as 13 years of age, started with poetry, had early sucecess with his poetry. Shortly after tried to write tragedies and dramas which were less fortunate than his poetry. Later into his life he became a philosophical and theological writer. Writing several works of literacy like Histore des Oracles. Entering his later years in life he was influncial on other major European writers espcially Jean-Jaquess-Raousseau giving him many tips and alot of advice as a writer. Besides being a writer he was also a professor for more than 42 years at French Academy. Left his legacy as a legendary teacher and writer, and died January 9th 1757 at a 100 years of age. ** Rene Descartes** - (Monteith) ** Tabula rasa ** - (Moreno)  ** Mary Wollstonecraft** - (Nachtergaele) ** Mary Wollstonecraft was a defined feminist since her life began. Raised by an abusive father, she was beaten to the ground until one day she decided to run away with her sister Eliza and her friend Fanny. Starting at this point she traveled around, taking on several different jobs such as teaching or nanny-ing. Throughout this time period she attempted to explain in her books how women are not inferior to men, and how they do not take their own stand, but it is only a world run by brutes aka 'gentlemen'. This was a revolutionary in her time period (late 1700's) and created an immense amount of controversy. She proceeded to have two children, both out of wedlock (since she did not believe in the ceremonies holiness) and died 10 days after her second child Mary was born, who later went on to write Frankenstein. William Hogarth** - (Nguyen) **
 * Galileo was born in Florence, Italy in 1564
 * Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the scientific revolution
 * Improved the telescope and supported Copernicanism (Sun at the center of the universe)
 * Called “The Father of modern observational Astronomy, Physics, and Science”
 * Discovered The four largest Jupiter Moons and sunspots
 * Invented the Military compass
 * The Church concluded Heliocentricism was false and put him under house arrest toward the end of his life
 * Galileo defended his views in his book Dialogue concerning the two Chief World Systems. (Appeared as an attack to Pope Urban VIII)
 * A wax tablet used to take notes which is cleared by melting the wax and smoothing it out.
 * Also, it's known as a theory that people are born without any knowledge of anything which was first concocted by Aristotle.
 * It claims that humans learn through experiences rather than some knowledge being innate.
 * (10 November 1697 – 26 October 1764) London, Eng.
 * William Hogarth was an English painter, print maker, pictorial satirist, social critic, and editorial cartoonist
 * been credited with pioneering western sequential art.
 * His work ranged from realistic portraiture (comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects").
 * His work is so pervasive that satirical political illustrations.
 * first English-born artist to attract admiration abroad, best known for his moral paintings.
 * His attempts to build a reputation as a history painter and portraitist, however, met with financial disappointment, and his aesthetic theories had more influence in Romantic literature than in painting.

Jean Honoré Fragonard** - (Nguyen) ** ====** Fargonard, born April 5, 1732, was a french painter and a print maker. His late Rococo was distinguished by facility, exuberance, and hedonism, He painted more than 550 paintings, not including drawings and etchings, making hime one of the most active artists in the late decades of the Ancien Regime. He only has five dated paintings. His most popular paintings convey an intimate atmosphere and veiled eroticism. **==== Edward Gibbon **  - (Nugen)  ** Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart** - (Olmos) **
 * From his childhood Mozart excelled in the piano and violin. He was composed music since the age of 5 and had composed over 600 music works. Mozart's music stands as an archetype of the **


 * classical style. At the time European music was dominated by the style gallant. He also wrote a great deal of religious music for large **


 * scale masses. Throughout his travels he absorbed the different **


 * styles of music. During his final years he composed many of his best known symphonies,concertos and operas.**

Franz Joseph Haydn (March 31, 1732 - May 31, 1809)** - (Phillips) **
 * Franz Joseph Hadyn, more commonly known as Joseph Hadyn, was an Austrian composer known for his influential work as one the creators of the fundamental genres of classical music. He played as the "court musician" in the palace of the Esterhazy family who supported him for nearly 30 years. Due to his longing for his old friends, like Mozart, Hadyn went to England in 1791 to conduct more symphonies. He returned to Vienna in 1795 and continued to play for the Esterhazy family, although only part-time, and he made frequent public appearances to the people of Vienna. He is remembered as the first great symphonist and the composer who essentially invented the string quartet. He trained Ludwig Von Beethoven and influenced the composing of many others til the day he died at age 77.**

Johann Sebastian Bach (March 31, 1685 - July 28, 1750)** - (Ponce) ** Bach was a German composer, organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist of the Baroque period. His music is still well known today. Bach was born into a family of musicians but at the time he was more famous as an organist. He was highly respected throughout Europe in this profession but it wasn't until the revival of interest and performances of his music in the first half of the 19th century that he became famous as a composer. Five of his most famous pieces are "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring", "Tocatta and Fugue in D Minor" , "Air on the G String" , "Brandenburg Concerto" , and "Goldberg Variations". Here is his "Tocatta and Fugue in D Minor" (said to be most famous of all): []

Antoine Watteau** - (Raison) ** Antoine Watteau was a French painter who had a very short career. Although, his career spurred the revival of interest in color and movement. He revitalized waning Barouque style and moved it to Rococo =Voltaire (1694-1778)** - (Rebotee) **= Philosophes** - **
 * French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher
 * Famous for
 * Sharp wit
 * Attacks on Catholic Church
 * Advocacy of freedom of religion and expression and separation of church and state
 * Initially thought that it was the king's job to improve education and welfare of subjects but disillusionment with Frederick the Great soon led him to state that "It is up to us to cultivate our garden."
 * HIs satirical book //Candide//, criticized the nobility, philosophy, the church and human cruelty

The philosophes (French for philosophers) were the intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment. These are people like:

Galileo
Two New Sciences, Dialogue on The Two Chief Systems of the World

Newton
Principia (mathmatical principles of natural philosophy

Fontenelle
Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds, Eulogies of Scientists

Bayle
Historical and Critical Dictionary

Locke
Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Second Treatise of Civil Government

Montesquieu
Persian Letters, The Spirit of Laws

Voltaire
Age of Louis XIV, Candide

Diderot
Encyclopedia

d'Holbach
System of Nature

Condorcet
Progress of Human Mind (9 stages, 9th is perfection)

Rousseau
The Social Contract

=Laissez Faire** - (Rivers) **= Laissez-faire is an economic environment in which transactions between private parties are free from government restrictions, tariffs, and subsidies, with only enough regulations to protect property rights.
 * (Redburn) **

**Blaise Pascal - (Romero) **

 * French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Christian philosopher
 * invented the mechanical calculator
 * called Pascal's calculators and later Pascalines
 * helped create two major new areas of research
 * significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry
 * corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory
 * influenced the development of modern economics and social science
 * wrote influential works on philosophy and theology
 * //Lettres provinciales//
 * //Pensées//

//The Starry Messenger// //On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres// //Leviathan// //Two Treatises on Civil Government// //Essay Concerning Human Understanding// //The Progress of the Human Mind// //Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds// //Wealth of Nations// //The Vindication of the Rights of Women// //Treatise on Human Nature// //The Spirit of Laws// //Principia Mathmatica// //Emile// //The Persian Letters// //Systema Naturae// //Candide-//Voltaire; criticized the nobility, philosophy, the church and human cruelty //Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire// //Novum Organum// //On the Fabric of the Human Body// //Letters Concerning the English Nation// //Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts// //Pensées//
 * Important Works **

1. What factors led to the development of the Scientific Revolution? ** (Knox) **    2. How do Hermeticism and Neoplatonism impact the Scientific Revolution? They played a huge impact on the people because people wanted to know more about them so science was encouraged to seek the truth. they both helped begin the science revolution.** (Kossia) ** They both allowed for scientific endeavors without it being shunned by the church. They also also both twisted their beliefs so that their helped back up science and new thinking. __**Please help with this one.**__ 3. Who were the significant scientists of the Scientific Revolution? The significant scientists were Francis Bacon, Giovanni Borelli, Robert Boyle, Tycho Brahe, Giordano Bruno, Nicolas Copernicus, Rene Descartes, Galileo Galilei, William Harvey, Johannes Kepler, ** (Laughlin) ** 4. What were the principle discoveries, inventions, and advancements that occurred during the Scientific Revolution?** (Lee, J.) ** The Scientific Revolution brought about many important advancements. In the study of astronomy, a new model of the universe was developed. In other words, people became to accept the universe as heliocentric rather than geocentric thanks to the work of Kepler. In physics, the laws of motion and gravitation were introduced with the work of Galileo and later Sir Isaac Newton. Other scientific advancements include the discovery of elements of nature by Robert Boyle and the circulation of blood by William Harvey. 5. What are the differences between hard sciences and the “soft” or social sciences?** (Lee, K.) ** Hard sciences: natural sciences(chemistry,physics,biology) Soft sciences: social sciences(history,political science). The distinction between the two types of science is a matter of the how strongly you can state, test and then accept or reject the hypothesis. Certain sciences, such as psychology and sociology, used to be considered soft science and now are considered hard science. Rather, it has to do with experimental design and the scientific method. Hard science involves experiments where it is relatively easy to set up controlled variables and make objective measurements. Particularly in sciences dealing with people, it may be difficult to isolate all the variables that may influence an outcome. In some cases, controlling the variable may even alter the results! Simply put, it is harder to devise an experiment in a soft science. ** That difficulty with experimentation in the soft sciences probably has something to do with the fact that it's immoral to experiment on humans without their consent. ** And **//__No__//**, hard science does not mean that it is stony or difficult J
 * Review Questions **
 * Progressive development in the field of science.
 * Collapse of earlier conceptual frameworks- the body, the universe(who needs God)
 * Examination/re-discovery of Classical texts- Greek and Latin.
 * Protestant Reformation and Religious Wars.
 * Development of new instruments that detected new science stuff never observed before : physics planetary functions
 * The third factor is rapid and effective communication among scientists: printing press
 * The fourth factor is the political and economic culture that values science and technology and rewards people for it.

6. The Philosophes sought to create a “science of man”. What is a science of man?** (Linton). The science of man is also known as the science of human nature which studies senses, impressions, ideas, imagination, passions, morality, justice, and society. It is a topic in David Hume's book a Treatise of human nature in the 18th century. The science of man first established that impressions from the senses, and memories of impressions are the foundation of all ideas.** 7. What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?** (Looney) ** Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from one or more general statements to reach a logically certain conclusion. Inductive reasoning is different because the conclusion is reached by generalizing and extrabolationg from initial information. The truth of a deductive reasoning is certain while the truth of the inductive reasoning is probable. 8. What developments and innovations occur in social sciences between 1500 and 1800?** (Macneill) ** Art: **With the Renaissance came huge advancements in art. Artists, especially those of the late Renaissance, were able to portray realistic people and create paintings that felt as if they were three dimensional.** Education: **The Counter Reformation led to the creation of universities throughout Europe. While the initial intent was for the universities to primarily teach the Catholic faith, they quickly became rather secular and focused more on teaching the sciences than they did religion. Nevertheless, this led to a more educated Europe that did not by any means reject religion.** Politics: **While Europe was primarily ruled by monarchies from 1500 to 1800, this doesn't mean people didn't theorize about different forms of government. The ideas of John Locke, who believed that we should overthrow oppressive governments, and Rousseau (although credited more-so for advocating the French revolution) who believed in a classical republican government played a large part in the foundation of the American Government, created in the late 18th century.** Economics: ** Triangular trade played a large role in the economics of the 16th to 19th centuries. Contact with the Americas opened up a whole new source of wealth to many European nations. Spain in particular was able to set up large sugar plantations in Brazil, along with running silver mining operations. Most of this wealth was traded for Chinese luxuries, but what remained of it in Europe was used to fund the industrial revolution. ** 9. Mathematics made several advancements during the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. Describe these advances, who developed them, and what impact do they have on understanding the world?** (Martinez) Some of the biggest mathematical breakthroughs was the invention of logarithms, trigonometry, astronomy, and geometry. Geometry by** **relating to motion and showed that at any moment the position of a point can be defined by its relation to surrounding planes or reference.**

10. What factors induced the proletariat and the working to rebel against the established authorities during the 18th and 19th centuries.** (Matafadi) ** The bourgeoisie would use military force to remain in power whenever the proletariat attempted to change things, and therefore the proletariat would have to respond with violence of their own.

11. What was the Church’s reaction to the Scientific Revolution? Did it have the same response to the Enlightenment?** (McCutchan) ** The Church was opposed to it because they were afraid the Scientific Revolution might be threatening towards their authority over the people due to their questions concerning the church's power and knowledge. The church was also opposed to the Enlightenment because Enlightenment thinkers believed reasoning could prove everything instead of relying on holy forces to provide answers. They wanted proof before they agreed to anything, and would not simply retreat to the commands of authority figures like the Pope, who is believed to be chosen by God, thus resulting in conflict between the church and the Enlightenment/Scientific Revolution.

12. Did the Catholic response to the Scientific Revolution differ from the Protestant response?** (Measom) ** Science and Religion had close ties during the 16th century, especially the Catholic Church, who sponsored universities and various scientists. In addition, many of the scientists during the scientific reformation were cleric or closely collaborated with clerics. Even Galileo who was later found as a heretic had many church patrons. The perception that religion was against science began with Galileo trial in 1633. The Catholic Church was invested the old view, and their response to Galileo’s theories about the heavenly bodies and their movements was rigid. Partly because the church had learned the lesson from the protestant reformation: any challenge to the Church’s authority should be dealt with firmly and directly. Although the scientist were similar to the Protestants in their belief in their right to interpret the scriptures, Protestants did not readily adopt the new scientific though because it simply defied common sense. The Protestants were not as degrading and harsh as the Catholic Church, but they certainly weren’t welcoming the new though with open arms. 13. What were the contributions of Johann Kepler to science? How was his work assisted by Tycho Brahe? ** (Mendez)- First of all Johann Kepler was a astronomer and a mathematician. He was most known in the field of optics where he improved the refracting teloscope and created the Keplerian teloscope which Gaileo used. He was also a mathematician teacher at a seminary school. Later on in his life he became an assistant to Tycho Brahe an notable astronomer at the time who observed stars and moons. He assisted Tycho Brahe with planetary laws of motion and many other astronomical things in order to understand space and the universe which earth resides. ** 14. How does Galileo’s audience before the Pope compare/contrast with the experience of the Martin Luther?** (Monteith) ** 15. What impact did the Scientific Revolution have on the development of Western society?** (Moreno ** The Scientific Revolution helped spread ideas to the Western society. Also, it added depth into their thinking, questioning everything they did and believed it seeming that there was a logical answer behind it. It caused some to lose their faith as they realized that a scientific event occurred rather than God, or their perception of the Divine one, creating something. 16. Where were the major universities found in Europe? Does East differ from West, or North from South in regards to centers of learning?** (Nachtergaele) ** All major universities were generally found in North-Western Europe due to the fact that the Humanist Renaissance hit there the most. People started to realize how education was a necessary tool in creating an orderly civilization and was the best way to pick out people to both trade and become ruling helpers (nobility). Eastern Europe did not have such a push towards education due to the fact that they were still very isolated and clueless. The South had a university every once in a while if traveling down a road, but still not as many compared to the Northern part of Europe. 17. How does literature and science from the classical period impact the Scientific Revolution?** (Nguyen) ** Literature and science from the classical period impact the Scientific Revolution by the development of the Enlightenment values of individualism because it demonstrated the power of the human mind. The ability of scientists to come to their own conclusions rather than to confirmed the capabilities and worth of the individual. Such influences on the traditional teachings of the Church, led to a period of philosophical activity in modern times. 18. What role do women play in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment?** (Nguyen) ** 19. What were the various views of God and religion that were held by the various thinkers of the Enlightenment?** (Nugen) ** 20. Enlightenment thinkers were guided by set of core beliefs. What were they?** (Olmos) Reason; which is to say that the TRUTH could be achieved through reason. Logic which is saying that natural is also good and reasonable. Happiness here and now is a moral duty. Progress in which humanity can and will progress as a whole. Liberty to say all people were free to live their lives as they see fit from the moment.** 21. Why is the idea of progress such an important concept in terms of the Enlightenment?** (Phillips) -** **The idea of progress in the Enlightenment was about moving forward. When you keep moving forward, more ideas are created, better ideas are created, and more technology to create more ideas and better ideas.** 22. How was the Enlightenment shaped by the Reformation and the absolute monarchies of Europe?** (Ponce) ** Because of the Reformation and Scientific Revolution, different groups that had arisen during the Renaissance (and some before that) started to fight because of their mixed ideas and opinions. Those who were Enlightenment thinkers at the time, were persecuted and thrown in jail because they were seen as heretics. Religious wars broke out between the Catholics and the Protestants which made some think that these organizations were fallible. They began to throw their philosophical ideas into the mess. People questioned every part of society but mostly God, what He did, and why He did it. The absolute monarchies Absolute monarchies shaped the Enlightenment by giving these new Enlightened peoples more to fight over. They were now also going over the form of government and how it affected the people. This created the system of checks and balances. 23. Similarly, how did the Enlightenment influence the governance of Europe?** (Raison) ** Before the Enlightenment, governance was primarily based around the Divine Right of Kings (you know, there power is given by God, and to question...... you get the point). Also, there was no separation between Church and State. However, when the Enlightenment came around, Enlightenment thinkers argued against these traditions. They took away nobility privileges and created more constitutional monarchies. Which led to the obvious separation between Church and State. 24. Several monarchs in Europe are often described as enlightened despots. How did they employ enlightenment ideals as the heads of their respective governments?** (Rajpurohit) ** =They employed it by giving more idealistic commands to there people therefore allowing many enlightenment ideas to flow such as literacy which allowed many of the monarchs followers to take more appreciation in. = =25. How does increasing literacy impact the Enlightenment? ** (Rebotee)  **= The ease and low cost of the printing press enabled the production of many books. As poorer people gradually accessed these books, the literacy rate among them rose. The authors and thinkers of the Enlightenment published books and pamphlets to explain their ideas. Because of the printing press and the fact that more and more people were able to read, these ideas were spread to all parts of the country. People, nobles and villagers alike, had access to these ideas and were able to reach their own conclusions over the teachings of the Enlightenment thinkers. Therefore, increasing literacy helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment. 26. What is Liberalism? 19th Century liberalism is very different from what we think of as liberal today.Liberals tended to be secular and focus on the idea of progress as a goal of society. In England in 1830 they had elections, and the house effectively split into the house of commons and the house of lords. MOre liberals were voted into the house of commons, and in this happening conservative power was lost, as liberals began slowly gaining power. These liberals were wealthy people in the house of commons. The liberals supported universal suffrage, and moving on to France they also gained power in 1830 when they won the election Charles X had called for, he was unhappy being conservative, and dissolved the newly formed govt. before it even came into place making the liberals extremely unhappy. Mobs formed, and soldiers eventually refused to defend their king, he was forced to flee. The Bourgeoisie (upper middle class) were happy making money and living comfortably, and would not revolt under the new king even though the liberals were unhappy, seeing the new govt as a conservative one trying to look liberal in order to avoid revolution. Liberals today: Liberal coming from roots meaning "liberate" or "free" and as applied to social questions meant that individuals should be as free from interference from the government as possible. There were and remain a number of theories that are based upon placing a very high value on human autonomy, freedom or liberty. In social affairs it was taken to mean that individuals were to remain free to pursue their own interests and to work and to keep the results of their labor, that individuals had a right to property and to pursuit of what would make the happy. The ideas of the Utilitarians, Bentham and the Mills, contributed heavily to this view of how social life ought to be arranged. Along with it came the idea that government should not interfere with individual’s earnings and with businesses. There was the idea of Laissez- Faire economics. These ideas were supportive of capitalism. Liberals today believe in peaceful change through reformations in law rather than revolutions. 27. Liberalism is a major component of the Enlightenment. How did the philisophes view people and society?** (Rivers) ** Enlightenment refers to an intellectual movement, primarily in France and Britain, that spans approximately one hundred years from the 1680s to 1789. The writings of the Enlightenment profoundly affected politics and the development of sociology. The French Revolution (1789) and the American Revolution (1776) had many causes but many Enlightenment ideas and ways of thinking had a great effect on these political and social changes. The slogans of "liberty, equality, fraternity" and "life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness" state the political ideals of these revolutions and reflect the ideas of Enlightenment thought.
 * (Redburn) **

28. What were the salons?** (Romero) Salons were the gatherings of people under one roof, held for entertainment, intellectual conversations, and the exchanging of ideas. A salon at times was also seen as a substitue for formal educational that one could not get. Although the salon was an Italian invention in the 16 century, it flourished in France throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. ** 29. Who were the primary patrons of the salons?** (Rue) ** Salons were usually attended by wealthy members of the aristocracy and gentry, the most important aspect of them being the role woman could take within them. Unlike most other intellectual gatherings, at salons women were usually the ones who were able to direct the discussions and focus attention on certain topics, giving them a great amount of secondary control over politics and the like. 30. Who were the //Philosophes//?** (Russell) ** The philosophes (French for philosophers) were the **intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment** **.** Few were primarily philosophers; rather, philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics and social issues. They strongly endorsed progress and tolerance, and distrusted organized religion (most were deists) and feudal institutions. They faded away after the French Revolution reached a violent stage in 1793. Some of the philosophes were: **Diderot, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Mary Wollstonecraft. More were John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Beccaria.**


 * These people advocated:**


 * Diderot:** 1st editor of the encyclopedia


 * Voltaire:** Religious freedm


 * Rousseau:** Social Contract (outlined the political structure that he thought would overcome evils of contemporary politics and society.)


 * Montesquieu**: Spirit of Laws


 * Locke:** Religious toleration, freedom of speech, no one ruler.


 * Hobbes**: Contrasting Locke.


 * Beccaria:** Punishment fits the crime.

31. What were the questions being asked by the various philosophes? What answer did they get?** (Schaefer) ** 32. What changes does art, music, and literature go through?** (Schrop) ** Artists returned to a more neoclassical style of painting and rationalism and realism took over because artists tried to make their artwork as realistic as possible. Artists also integrated philosophy into their artwork instead of just making big elegant paintings. Music became more relaxing and musicians used dynamics, orchestral color, rhythm, and tone to form tension and realease in the music. Literature became more readily available and some upper class men even had their own private libraries. 33. Who were the principle artists of the “rococo period” and what works of art did they produce?** (Siraphet) ** __** Jean-Antoine Watteau: **__ *Polish Woman *A Pierrot *A Mezzetino __Francois Boucher:__ *//Self-portrait in the Studio,// 1720 *//Putti with Birds, 1730-1733// *//Renaud and Armide,// 1734 __Giovanni Battista Tiepolo:__ *//The Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew,// 1722 *//Alexander the Greand and Campaspe in the Studio of Apelles,// 1740 *//Frescoes,// 1751-1753 __Jean-Baptist-Simeon Chardin:__ *//Woman Cleaning Turnips,// 1738 *//The Ray,// 1728 *//Boy with a Top,// 1735 34. What did people do for fun in Enlightenment Europe?** (Sjostrom) ** Intellectual salons popped up in France, philosophical discussions were held, and the increasingly literate population read books and passed them around feverishly.
 * They were asking questions of how everything in the universe worked around them and this sparked the Scientific Revolution. The general motto was "Dare to know! Have courage to use your own reason!" Some of the answers they discovered resulted in Kepler's Laws, the first calculator was invented by Pascal, Copernicus made discovered that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and Vesalius wrote one the most influential books on human anatomy**
 * The most well-known or principle artist of the "rococo period" were Jean-Honore Frangonard (1732-1806), Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684-1721), Francois Boucher (1703-1770), Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770), Jean-Baptist-Simeon Chardin (1699-1779), and etc. **
 * __Jean-Honore Frangonard:__ **
 * *//The Secret Meeting,// 1771 **
 * *//Blind Man's Bluff,// 1760 **
 * *//The See-Saw,// 1750-55 **